Russia’s history is one of relentless territorial expansion, autocratic rule, and imperial ambition. From the early Tsardom of Russia to the Soviet Union and the modern Russian Federation, the country has sought to dominate vast territories, often at the expense of its neighbours. Historically led by a singular autocrat—whether a tsar, a general secretary, or a president—Russia’s imperial reach has consistently extended over a vast and shifting geographical expanse. This legacy may explain Russia’s strained relationship with contemporary international law, as its long-standing tradition of conquest and centralised rule conflicts with the constraints of the modern global order.
The Phases of Russian Imperialism
The Tsardom of Russia and the Early Empire (16th-18th Century)
Under Ivan IV (the Terrible), Russia embarked on an aggressive expansionist policy, conquering the Khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan, and Siberia. The Romanov dynasty continued this expansion, absorbing Ukraine (then controlled by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) and the Baltic states following wars with Sweden. Peter the Great and Catherine the Great consolidated and expanded Russia’s hold over vast swathes of Eastern Europe and Central Asia, establishing Russia as a dominant imperial power.
The Russian Empire (18th-20th Century)
Throughout the 19th century, Russia engaged in multiple wars to expand her frontiers, notably against the Ottoman Empire (leading to the annexation of Crimea in 1783) and Poland (partitioned in the late 18th century). Russian imperial ambitions also led to confrontations with Britain and France in Central Asia during the era known as the "Great Game". By the early 20th century, the Russian Empire controlled much of Eastern Europe and parts of Asia, spanning from Finland to the Pacific coast.
The Soviet Era: Imperialism Under a New Name (1917-1991)
The Bolshevik Revolution nominally ended the Russian Empire, but the Soviet Union effectively continued Russia’s imperial ambitions under a different ideological banner. The USSR forcibly incorporated Ukraine, Belarus, and the Baltic states, while maintaining control over the Caucasus and Central Asia. Post-World War II, the Soviet sphere of influence extended across Eastern Europe, imposing puppet regimes in Poland, East Germany, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and others. Military interventions, such as the suppression of uprisings in Hungary (1956) and Czechoslovakia (1968), reinforced Soviet dominance. The Cold War saw Russia engaged in global conflicts, most notably in Afghanistan (1979-1989), further demonstrating the Soviet Union's imperial reach.
Post-Soviet Imperial Ambitions (1991-Present)
Despite the USSR’s dissolution in 1991, Russia continued efforts to maintain imperial-like control over its former Soviet republics. The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was an early attempt at retaining influence, but Russia resorted to military force when soft power failed. The invasion of Georgia in 2008, the annexation of Crimea in 2014, and the full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022 illustrate Russia’s ongoing expansionist tendencies. Russia’s involvement in Belarus, Moldova (Transnistria), and Kazakhstan further highlights her refusal to accept the loss of her former empire.
The Costs of Russian Imperialism: Wars and Conflicts
Russian expansionism has precipitated numerous wars, including the Russo-Turkish Wars, the Napoleonic Wars, the Crimean War, and both World Wars. More recent conflicts include the Chechen Wars, the invasion of Georgia, the annexation of Crimea, and the war in Ukraine. Each period of Russian imperial expansion has concluded with major upheaval—whether it was the fall of the Romanov dynasty in 1917, the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, or the economic and military attrition Russia faces today in Ukraine.
The Economic and Military Burden
Russia now allocates a substantial proportion of its GDP to military expenditures, estimated at over 6% as of 2024: vastly more than the United States, which stands at 3,5%, or China, which stands at below 1.5%. Much of the economy is geared toward military production, further entrenching Russia’s reliance on aggressive geopolitics as an economic motor.
The European Response: The Necessity for Military Expansion
Throughout history, counterbalances to Russian imperialism have included Britain, France, Germany, and, more recently, NATO. With the United States recently exhibiting isolationist tendencies, European nations must take greater responsibility for their defence. Poland, a country with a population of 38 million, recognising the threat, plans to expand her military to 500,000 troops. If other European nations were to scale proportionally, the United Kingdom, France, and Germany would need to vastly increase their military forces beyond their current levels: the UK and France from 167,000 and 334,000 respectively each to 900,000; and Germany from 213,000 to 1.1 million. (In each case these figures include reservists.)
Conclusion: A Newly Militarised Europe is Inevitable
Given Russia’s historical trajectory and current geopolitical realities, European nations must prepare for a prolonged period of military vigilance. With both the United States and Russia currently challenging the post-Cold War rules-based international order, Europe must become an armed camp to preserve its security and values. A collective, well-armed European force will be crucial in countering contemporary Russian imperial ambitions and ensuring lasting stability in the region: not just to counter Russian aggression in Ukraine, but in the rest of Eastern Europe as well, as has happened so many times before.