Surzhyk is a mixed language that blends elements of Ukrainian and Russian, spoken by a significant portion of the Ukrainian population. The term “Surzhyk” originally referred to impure mixtures of grains or flour, symbolizing its linguistic hybrid nature. While often regarded as an informal or substandard form of communication, Surzhyk reflects centuries of linguistic, social, and political interactions between Ukraine and Russia. It has played a significant role in shaping Ukrainian linguistic identity, especially in times of political and cultural change.
Here we explore the origins and historical development of Surzhyk, its widespread use today, and the controversies surrounding it—particularly in the context of Ukraine’s ongoing war with Russia.
Origins and Early Development of Surzhyk
Surzhyk’s emergence is closely linked to Ukraine’s historical relationship with Russia, as well as broader patterns of linguistic contact and bilingualism.
The word “Surzhyk” was originally used in agriculture to describe mixed grains, typically of inferior quality. This metaphor was later applied to language, reflecting how Ukrainian and Russian were blended together in colloquial speech, often with inconsistent grammatical structures.
Linguistically, Surzhyk developed as a result of Ukraine’s shifting political and economic landscapes. Before the Russian Empire’s expansion into Ukrainian territories, Ukrainian (then considered a dialect of Old East Slavic) had significant Polish, Belarusian, and even Turkic influences. However, Russian influence increased dramatically in the 18th and 19th centuries as Ukraine was progressively absorbed into the Russian Empire.
Several key historical events contributed to the emergence of Surzhyk:
1. The 17th and 18th Centuries – The Gradual Russification of Ukraine
The Treaty of Pereyaslav (1654) brought Ukraine under Russian rule, marking the beginning of Russification policies. Over time, Russian became the dominant language in administration, trade, and urban centers. Ukrainian remained prevalent in rural areas, but increasing contact between urban and rural populations led to mixed linguistic forms.
2. The 19th Century – Russian as the Language of Authority
By the 19th century, the Russian Empire sought to marginalise Ukrainian. Laws such as the Valuev Circular (1863) and the Ems Ukaz (1876) restricted Ukrainian-language publications and education. Many Ukrainians, particularly in cities, became bilingual, but often lacked formal education in Ukrainian due to the dominance of Russian in official institutions. This contributed to the emergence of Surzhyk, as Ukrainian speakers incorporated Russian words and grammatical structures into their speech.
3. The Soviet Period (1922–1991) – Surzhyk as a Byproduct of Soviet Policy
After the formation of the Soviet Union, there was a brief period of Ukrainization (1920s), during which Ukrainian was promoted. However, by the 1930s, Stalin’s policies reversed these efforts, enforcing Russian as the dominant language in schools, workplaces, and government institutions.
Millions of Ukrainians, particularly those migrating to cities from rural areas, had to learn Russian for economic and social advancement. Lacking formal education in either language, many spoke a mixture—Surzhyk—merging Ukrainian syntax with Russian vocabulary and vice versa. This phenomenon was particularly strong in industrial centres such as Kharkiv, Dnipro, and Donetsk.
Surzhyk in Post-Soviet Ukraine
After Ukraine gained independence in 1991, the country experienced a revival of Ukrainian identity, and Ukrainian was declared the state language. However, Surzhyk remained widespread, especially in regions where Russian influence had been historically strong.
Geographic and Social Distribution of Surzhyk
Surzhyk is primarily spoken in central, eastern, and southern Ukraine, where historical Russification efforts were strongest. It is less common in western Ukraine, where Ukrainian has remained dominant due to historical ties with Poland and Austria-Hungary.
The use of Surzhyk is also influenced by social and economic factors:
• Urban versus Rural Divide: Urban populations are more likely to speak either standard Ukrainian or Russian, whereas rural populations often use Surzhyk due to long-standing bilingualism.
• Education Levels: People with limited formal education in either Ukrainian or Russian are more likely to speak Surzhyk.
• Generational Differences: Older generations, who were educated in Russian during the Soviet era, often speak Surzhyk. Younger Ukrainians, especially after independence, have been increasingly educated in standard Ukrainian.
The Controversies Surrounding Surzhyk
While Surzhyk is a natural linguistic phenomenon, its continued use has sparked considerable debate. The current war between Ukraine and Russia has intensified discussions about language and national identity.
1. Surzhyk as a Symbol of Linguistic Decay or Resistance?
Some linguists and nationalists argue that Surzhyk represents linguistic corruption, preventing people from speaking proper Ukrainian. They see it as a remnant of Russian imperialism and a hindrance to the full revival of Ukrainian identity.
On the other hand, some scholars view Surzhyk as an adaptive linguistic form that reflects Ukraine’s complex history. Rather than seeing it as a “pollution” of Ukrainian, they argue that Surzhyk is a creative form of resistance to Russian linguistic domination—Ukrainians retained their native speech even if it became mixed.
2. Surzhyk and the War with Russia
Since Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022, language has taken on new political significance. Many Ukrainians have consciously switched from Russian to Ukrainian as an act of defiance against Russian aggression. Surzhyk complicates this linguistic shift—some Ukrainians reject it because of its Russian elements, while others continue to speak it out of habit.
Additionally, Russian propaganda has often exaggerated the presence of Russian speakers in Ukraine to justify military intervention. Some Ukrainians fear that speaking Surzhyk—or even Russian—could be misinterpreted as pro-Russian sentiment, leading to increased efforts to eliminate Surzhyk in favour of pure Ukrainian.
3. The Role of Media and Education in Shaping Attitudes Toward Surzhyk
The Ukrainian government has promoted Ukrainian-language education and media to reduce the prevalence of Russian and Surzhyk. Many schools now teach exclusively in Ukrainian, and official broadcasts discourage Surzhyk. However, in informal settings—social media, entertainment, and everyday speech—Surzhyk remains a common means of communication.
Some Ukrainian comedians and writers have even embraced Surzhyk, using it in satire to mock political elites or depict working-class speech authentically. However, this can reinforce the stereotype that Surzhyk is only spoken by the uneducated.
The Future of Surzhyk
Surzhyk’s fate is uncertain. With Ukraine moving toward greater linguistic independence from Russia, efforts to promote standard Ukrainian may lead to a decline in Surzhyk over time. However, as a deeply ingrained linguistic phenomenon, it is unlikely to disappear completely.
In the short term, Surzhyk will likely persist, especially among older generations and in rural areas. However, younger Ukrainians, educated in standard Ukrainian, may gradually abandon it in favour of a more formal linguistic identity.
Ultimately, Surzhyk is more than just a linguistic curiosity—it is a reflection of Ukraine’s complex historical relationship with Russia, the impact of imperial and Soviet policies, and the ongoing process of national identity formation. While some view it as an obstacle to Ukrainian linguistic purity, others see it as a testament to the resilience and adaptability of the Ukrainian people.